Associate Professor at Whittier College and Visiting Scholar at UCLA, Dr. Hector Valenzuela, will release a publication in May showing the anti-aging benefits that TA-65 supplements has on human cells.

The company, RevGenetics, emphasis on developing tiny molecule herbal products, aimed at activating certain genes that boost longevity and health.

According to President and Longevity advocate of RevGenetics, the regular consumer of TA-65 supplement has revealed solid evident to the benefit of the product. RevGenetics is a top provider of TA-65, and they are very supportive, in providing an easy way for people to purchase the product online.

The activation of telomerase has strong benefits on vision, immune system function, skin enhancement and sexual function. This recent study claim that TA-65 is a highly effective supplement to promote the release of telomerase. The product (TA-65) consists of small green plants and astragalus. A single supplement consists of more than one pound of raw plants, and it is also safe to take. If someone consumed a pound of natural astragalus, it would cause health problems due to the high presence of iron. It would lead to iron poisoning.

In the past, to purchase a supplement of TA-65, one had to go to New York, with a prescription provided by a doctor, but now it is possible to get the drug online and to have the same shipped worldwide.

Source: Chron and PR Web

Anti Aging, Anti Aging Supplements

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Christine Dilworth, the owner of the pub as well of Rosie thinks that the cat’s long life is due to the real ale fumes that have been going up its noise. Cats generally live up to 15 years old. However, Rosie has been able to reach its 25thbirthday recently and is as such one of the oldest of its kind in Britain.

Christine who is herself aged 52 years old, explained that Rosie had always been in very good company. She spent her time having a good time by being besides the open fire. According to Christine, these real ale fumes have really helped Rosie in extending its lifespan. Rosie is rather fragile in nature and has been quite small in size but the latter has a real character.

Rosie enjoys the company of people so much that she has spent all her time in the pub itself. While Christine had had several cats over the years, Rosie has had her special place in the hearts of all. She is very gentle, a real lady! She is seems to be really happy when there are people all around her, specially when there are children who are playing with her; even when they are pulling at her!

Christine continues by adding that there is not a day that passes by without someone asking about Rosie. There are numerous people who like to pose and take photographs with her. In fact it seems that Rosie secretly takes much pleasure in her celebrity status.

Rosie, who is regularly mistaken to being a kitten because of her small frame loves being among the hustle and bustle of the pub above all. In reality it is on very rare occasions that you may find her upstairs. She loves it when customers stroke and caress her. She can also often be found stretched in front of the chimney enjoying the heat of the fire. While in summer, Rosie spends her time going out and lying on the benches to enjoy the sunshine to the maximum.

The owner, Christine, firmly believes that Rosie has been able to reach her 25th birthday because of the real ale fumes found in the pub. But all has not always been rosy for Rosie. Some time back, Rosie had developed a cancer on one of her ears. They family members got frightened. They were scared that Rosie will need to get her ear chopped off. They thought that Rosie might have got the cancer as she was always sun-bathing without any sun cream applied.

Whenever she is in the pub, she immediately comes in the limelight. It is amazing how Rosie strikes up friendship with the punters. “It is so lovely to see her meow when the people talk to her” adds Christine. Christine even recalls about a lady who like Rosie so much that she would let Rosie even lick the cream pot each time that she would have her coffee. Since then, it is like it has been engraved in her memory, and consequently each time she sees a cream pot, she expects to have a treat!

‘There are a number of cats who become nervous in the presence of people. But it is not the case with Rosie. She has her own mannerisms that are appreciated by all. Parents are often accompanied by their children who come all the way only to see her.’

Christine narrates that the couple’s own sons, Micheal and Robert, cannot imagine their lives without Rosie. In fact, the couple had the cat well before the birth of their sons. She has always been a family member and part of the guys’ lives. As such they cannot imagine their lives any different.

25 years have also passed since Christine’s family has settled in Pendleton in order to set up their family life as well as their pub. It was when they moved to Pendleton that a local farmer talked to them about Rosie. She was a small white kitten at that time, but was already endowed with her mischievous cute ways. Christine admits that she straightly fell for Rosie.

Christine and her family will be celebrating the 25 years of existence of their pub on the 25th of August. She is hoping with all her heart that Rosie will still be with them for that celebration.

Rosie has become such a celebrity that she even forms part of the Good Beer Guide.

According to the Guinness Book of Records the oldest cat till now is Crème Puff. The latter is a female cat from the Texas. She died at the age of 38 years and 3 days in the year 2005.

However, last year there was a family based in South Wales who were claiming that their pet was the world oldest cat as it had reached its 39th birthday.

Source: Daily Mail

Gerontology, Health And Aging

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In spite of the quantity of research that has been carried out over the past years, the genetic reasons of why animals’ lifespan differ so much have continued to be a mystery. This is due to the fact that is rather difficult to identify a single gene’s impact among these countless factors.

However, two researchers, of the Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool based in the United Kingdom, namely, Yang Li and Pedro Magalhães, have recent published one of their studies in the AGE journal that might aid to alter this. These two researchers have unveiled a novel approach. This approach has permitted to identify the molecules that are linked to long life. The study has also revealed the proteins which are responsible in the DNA repair as well as for the clearing out of anomalous proteins.

The work, which makes use of an algorithm to be able to depict the proteins that are transforming simultaneously with the extension of the lifespan, demonstrates the way longevity has been impacted through natural selection. Additionally it provides indications regarding vital processes that are the causes of ageing. That is not all; the study also introduces a technique which has the potential to turn into a significant tool to better grasp the genetics of ageing.

A great deal of work has been carried out on ageing over the past decades. The main reason is due to the fact the longevity of people has extended quite much. However, that is not the sole reason; in reality, so much emphasis is being put on ageing as with time, our society is putting more and more emphasis on youth. In spite of this, we still are very far from the understanding of its genetic source. The latter has been confirmed by the fact that questions are being raised on the sirtuin gene itself. It is noteworthy that the sirtuin gene is among the most promising findings in ageing research. The sirtuin gene has even led to the launching of numerous products to fight against ageing during the past years. The dilemma is that growing old does not only have an impact on several body functions but it also has an influenced by several environmental factors and a multiplicity of genes.

It is interesting to note that fossil and biological data implies that longevity has been continuously increasing throughout the mammalian evolution, and especially in the lineages leading to mankind. The idea behind Li and Magalhães’s study has been triggered this and by the fact that as per the predictions of evolutionary theory, genes which grants greater longevity would be chose in the course of evolution as long as there are not alternate key selective pressures that take place.

Their theory was that in such cases the genes/proteins which decide on longevity must be under accelerated development in the mammals’ ancestry where lifespan increased and might be recognized through that.

In order to be able to establish this and discover the biological processes and genes that are connected to an extended lifespan, the two researchers began with the classification of mammals which had changed throughout the course towards mankind, that is from the very first mammal radiation to a very long time, which had distinctive longevities in addition to a completely sequenced genome (to provide room for comparison).

There were 36 species that were discovered and the latter shared above fifteen thousand proteins which might be examined. After the prediction of the way these proteins would appear in ancestral species, the researchers Li and Magalhães made used of an algorithm which has been developed by them to search for relationships in cross-species genome associations and spot those proteins which have been through accelerated evolution while longevity extended.

The researchers were able to detect numerous “signatures’ and thus identifying a variety if genes that are most probably connected to an extended lifespan, comprising of the ubiquitin pathway as well as DNA repair genes that reprocesses anomalous proteins. In reality, one of the characteristics of ageing is associated with the accrual of impaired molecules, for instance, lipids, proteins and DNA. Consequently, this leads to the dysfunction of the cells and ultimately to death, which lies behind much of the process of growing old. Li and Magalhães’s outcomes demonstrate that at least a number of repair systems were chosen, and perhaps, optimized in long-standing species.

As per Magalhães explanations, the genetic foundation for the differences in longevity among species continues to be a big mystery for biology. For instance, a mouse can live up to five years while human beings can reach 100 years and more. If we are able to make out which are the proteins that permit few species to have a longer life than others, if would be able to make use of that knowledge to enhance human health and thus retard the ageing process. Through this study we have out in place a technique to identify whose molecular progression correlates to the extended lifespan of a specie. The proteins that we have found out transformed in a distinct pattern, implying that the development of these proteins has not happened by mere accident, but more exactly by design so as to deal with the impact of ageing on these of biological processes, such as DNA damage. The outcomes imply that animals having long lives were successful in optimizing their bodily repairs which in turn helped them in postponing their ageing process.

Source: All Voices

Gerontology, Longevity

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Why Do Humans Have Big Brains?

The main reason why human are ahead of other earthling creatures is because of our large brain. The size of the human brain gives us a significant advantage. It is considered as one of the most important organs and representing 2 % of the human’s body mass. Despite it’s rather light weight it consumes 20 percent of the body’s energy. The interesting part is that, 2 million years ago; none of our so-called forefathers had a brain even bigger than the size of an ape’s brain (using same body comparison size). Thus, what motivated the growth of the brain? A potential answer is the development of better tools, which further required skills and memory. The second reason might have been communication; the need to interact. The third motivator could have been the change of environment determinants forcing our forefathers to change geographical location, giving them a push to evolve.

How did human evolve from four to two legs?

The early humans changed their way of moving around well before their brain evolved. So why did humans changed and walk on two legs when the ape still continued to move around on four limbs? The answer might lie in energy consumption, as moving on four legs takes more energy than two. In addition, having the arms free helped our ancestors in the quest for food. The upright position even enabled our ancestors to control body temperature and direct exposure to the sun.

But where did all our Hair Go?

In contrast to our hairy ape cousins, humans are naked. This state of nakedness must have evolved based on natural and induced processes. For instance, reducing hair helped our ancestors to maintain a cooler temperature, especially while going through the steaming savannahs in Africa. The second reason, is that hair attracts parasite infestations as well as diseases, so our ancestors decided to get rid of it. A rather radical different viewpoint suggests our ancestors started to enjoy water, and this induced an evolution, which led to the human nakedness.

What about Our Relatives?

Approximately, 24,000 years ago our closest relative got extinct. In the past, the Homo sapiens had relatives known as Neanderthals or homo neanderthalensis. There is also a known ‘hobbit’ which was spotted in Indonesia Isle of Flores in year 2003, and it is likely another member of the genus’ homo family. The hobbit got extinct 12,000 years ago.

There are two hypotheses, explaining how our cousines got extinct; either infections or the environment killed of the species, or it is our specie that got rid of the relatives.

Accelerating Change in Evolution!

Remarkably, recent research suggests that human evolution is speeding up. There is a dozen of scientists supporting this argument with strong evidence. However, it is hard to truly evaluate if our genes are evolving, and if they are, what motivated the change is it: treatment for diseases, diets, or new lifestyles.

Modern Humanity – Evolved outside Africa but why?

It is believed that some 50,000 years ago, homo sapiens moved out from Africa to conquer the world. They reached almost all continents, excluding Antarctica. Scientists suggest that this mobilization is associated with the mutation mechanism that upgraded our brain capacity to understand language and to learn how to craft complex tools, art pieces and to live in society. Yet, other researches says that population growth was the main reason for moving out of Africa as there is evidence that modern human exists even before the scientific scenario of the grand mobilization from Africa.

Modern Humans and Our Origin?

It is hard to come up with a single best hypothesis of the evolution of modern humans. The current finest scenario is the out-of-Africa hypothesis. However, it is also believed that different Homo species crossed each other and mated to form the smarter modern human species.

Source: Live Science, Huffington Post and MSNBC

Anti Aging, Gerontology, Health And Aging, Lifestyle

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In human history, the struggle for living forever has always been amidst mankind’s desired aims. Until today all trial to stop and/or reverse the aging process has been purely a utopian fantasy.
Recent discoveries suggest that we are closer than we think. The quest to overcome and defy the aging process is a challenge that scientists are fighting in laboratories all over the world. They are trying to develop the medicine of the Holy Grail.

The progressive advancement in medical scientists, as gone so far, that a famous scientist believes that the first individual to enjoy a lifespan of 1,000 years is living with us today.

Very recently, two studies came about to reveal astounding facts about the aging process.
One of the studies at King College, London identified four variants of the ‘Father Time’ genes. These genes will help the researchers to understand the pace of aging. In a natural way, it is possible to turn these genes either on or off. These same genes are influenced by external determinants such as lifestyle and diets.

If scientists are able to unravel how these genes operate, then it would be possible to derive anti-aging treatments.

A second study, from Université Paris-Sud identified a compound known as Buckminsterfullerene. It was apparently discovered that when buckminsterfullerene was mixed with olive oil it virtually increased the lifespan of rats by 100 percent.

In the research, the scientists highlighted that Buckminsterfullerene might be a potential cure for aging and even used in cancer therapies.

The dynamism of scientific revelations goes far beyond only these two studies. In 2010, at Harvard University, researchers found a way to reverse the aging effect in mice. The result from their study was of remarkable success. They were able to revert aging, brain diseases as well as infertility in the mice. It was achieved by altering an enzyme involved in the safeguard of telomeres.

Telomeres are a type of cap that protects the chromosomes. It prevents wear with age and other damages. At the University of Pittsburgh, in 2012, stem cell injection was used in laboratory experiment on mice and it the outcome was a potential increase in the mice lifespan by up to 300 percent.

A researcher involved in the study, Dr Laura Niedernhofer, suggest that very soon there will be advance medical solutions to postpone aging. However, it will at least take a few decades before medical evidence, and approvals are granted for commercialization.

The research at University of Pittsburgh gives us a step ahead in the quest for immortality. However, there is nothing to celebrate yet, unless you’re a rat or a mouse.

A famous biomedical gerontologist, Dr. Aubrey de Grey believes that immortality-seekers can indeed be optimistic. The first human to live to 150 is according to him already living today, and he even suggested that there is a 50 percent chance that someone alive today will reach 1,000 years. He expects that regenerative medicine to tackle aging will be developed within 2 to three decades. So, the era where scientists will be able to totally manipulate the aging process might only be years ahead.

According to Aubrey de Grey, the therapy will work in a systematic manner. The body’s external and internal structure can be restored, every month or once a year, to make you as healthy as a young adult even if you are above 60 years.

The additional years to your lifespan will help you to live even longer, as advancement in regenerative medicine will steadily improve until a state when it can even repair cellular damage to organs.

In the process of ageing, repair is equivalent to turning back the biological clock. We become genetically younger, when our body is healthy. In other words, if people in the 60s got their body repaired and restored, they could once again look like young adults.

The SENS (Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence) Foundation is where the Chief Scientist, Dr. de Grey makes his discoveries on rejuvenating bio-technology. One of the fields of study, is the development of artificial tissues and organs. According to him, aging will be achieved via a ‘divide & conquer’ approach; there will various techniques and technologies required.

The aim of SENS foundation is not purely immortality. It is rather geared to help people live healthily and to avoid old age diseases.

The goal of most life-extension efforts is to make people live healthily, and side effect is longevity.

Source: Metro Co Uk

Anti Aging, Gerontology, Health And Aging, Immortality

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A British Philosopher, Stephen Cave, conducted a survey on the subject of immortality and concluded that the various stories on human immortality can be summarized into 4 points. The first is the theory of the medieval alchemists, but the challenge is to achieve the process without death. The second method of human immortality is resurrection, and to return to life after death but in another form, this belief is present in all Abrahamic religions. The third point is to materialize the soul, into a form that it persists through years; this was suggested as early as in Plato’s time. The last method to achieve immortality is through popularity, becoming famous so that one’s name continues to live on, transcending time and distance.

According to Mr. Cave, immortality is only a mirage. Yet, projects aimed towards human longevity are, however, astounding. It helps to provide answers to doctrines of Dualism (body and mind) and vitalism. Currently, there is a strong belief that living creature are controlled by some supernatural element, which can ensure the survival of our consciousness even after death. For Christians, this is explained by resurrection. The soul and body are separated, and the body is left, while the soul goes either to hell or even depending on good or bad action done in the lifespan of an individual.

Of course, longevity research on life extension has made significant progress in the recent years. There are lab studies where the lifespan of mice has been increased by a roughly 30 percent.

Mr. Cave does, however, emphasis that human immortality will lead to the famous argument of boredom. Yes, it is hard to plan what you are going to do if you know that you will be living for a billion years – and what will happen if you are able to do everything that is possible, a hundred times in that long lifespan? Boredom is a common dispute against immortality, but it validity might indeed be futile as centenarians are keen to live-on.

Also, human immortality doesn’t mean humans will be invincible. We will still be in the peril of lethal accidents. In the quest towards the Holy Grail, the aim is to stop the ageing process and not to make human invincible. According to Mr. Cave, the medical immortal limit will be around 6,000 years based on probability. In that time, he/she will be statistically liable to die by an accident (e.g. car accident).

Source: Economist and Read Mr Cave’s Book: Immortality: The Quest to Live Forever and How it Drives Civilisation

Anti Aging, Anti Aging Theories, Immortality

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In human nature, each of us has this urge to chase for self-interest and self-fulfillment. It is neither good nor bad. For instance, the rapid progress in science and modernity is a result of self-interest progress.

People are motivated by self-interest to achieve and innovate. Yet, after success, people reach a high level of wealth, power and comfort, they ostensibly deny how they struggle to achieve it and turn into a rather inactive and defensive mode. This explains why many governments, non-governmental organizations are way less innovative in comparison to competitive individual and companies, in the free-market.

With age, mature companies and individual’s transit into a conservative mode of operation and reduce the risk thresholds. This hinders innovations, and explains why new companies and young dynamic individuals are behind most of the recent breakthroughs and not the old tycoons.

When companies and individuals are financially secure, they tend to suppress completion. This is something that government and large corporation are very keen on.

In this same sense, people go to school for 12 to 20 years just to join an organization or to start a sparkling business. The second step is to marry, have children, and to get rid of mortgage. This is the stage were people start to accustom themselves to a certain living standard. It is hard to face new competition from pioneering companies.

So, here comes the conspiracy in innovation and business. These so well-established companies act defensively, and start building up barriers to entry into the industry. It is human nature to do so, despite that it is bad for the economy and innovation.

People tend to ignore that 30 years ago, when they were in the dynamic and young entrepreneur group, they did the same to their competitors. Now the game has changed, and political influence is used to protect oneself.

So what Is the Result on Medical Innovation?

The CEO and chairman of multinational multi-billion Drug Company that started with an astounding drug that saved millions of lives, do currently, spend more on political lobbying and marketing than on Research and Development.

This conspiracy theory of how business works, is certainly a reality. Large multinationals prevent competing drugs to reach the market. For instance, new technology can develop drugs much powerful than before but, apparently, instead of saving millions of lives; humans react defensively.

The ultimate goal is political and financial power. These are the same tools used to prevent innovative technology and drugs to reach the market. If ever a rejuvenating drug was released to the market, and most of the old-age diseases were to be cured, then a mufti-billion-dollar industry would collapse.

So currently, scientific researchers are faced with two realities, the first challenge is to find the best cure, but the most difficult issue is to have the drug approved.

Source: Maximum Life Foundation

Anti Aging, Gerontology

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What impact does the longevity diet have? If thinking of old people long passed the ages of 65 to 80 years, the picture of lean humans comes to mind. Obese centenarians are a rare sight and whether willingly or not, most of those who live passed the age of 85, in fact, practice a longevity diet by eating fewer calories. Consequentially it is safe to assume that a reduced-calorie diet can prolong lives. The diet is not about stopping consumption of favourite snacks and foods, but to reduce the amount people eat.

What the diet means is an overall calorie reduction in everyday life. If a regular intake of calories for women is at 2000 calories per day, and the longevity diet requires a reduction of 30%, then the daily intake is reduced to 1400. Such a decrease is quite a radical approach to increasing ones lifespan and may not be achievable in one big step. Instead, the calorie intake can be lowered by 15% at first and another 15% a few months later to get used to the new regime.

Calorie reduction is one important step in increasing longevity, but other dietary changes have also a positive contribution. For example, eating more fruits, vegetables, nuts, grains and legumes increase the intake of disease preventing nutrients, protein and fibre. In addition, eating more fish is healthy because if its has a high density of omega-3 fatty acids. Many clinical studies have proven that a diet rich in fish is conducive to a long life, so eating more of it means a possibility of living longer.

In fact, research shows that omega-3 fatty acids can decrease the risk of a range of illnesses. If the risk of suffering from a potentially lethal disease is lowered consequentially human’s life expectancy goes up. Purely, this reason has made fish-oil supplement a very common addition to many people’s daily intake. Drinking wine on a daily basis has become equally popular because it is proven that regular wine drinkers have a higher level of omega-3 fatty acids in their bloodstream.

The longevity diet might increase your life-expectancy, but if you want a boosted effect than drinking wine daily should add to the life prolonging effects. Many regular wine connoisseurs display a longer lifespan over those that don’t drink wine. Omega 3 may be one of the reasons; another one could be because of the substance resveratrol that is found in wine. It is a highly powerful antioxidant, which are crucial when thinking about increasing life expectancy.

Wine contains a high level of resveratrol, higher than any other food. Scientists’ excitement about resveratrol’s potential makes it surprising that not more people have started to consume wine regularly. A small dinner of a piece of fish complemented with a glass of wine doesn’t sound too bad either – particularly if it does, in fact, make you live longer.

Source: Self-Growth – Human Longevity Diet

Anti Aging, Health And Aging, Longevity

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Overview

Thomas Kirkwood’s theory of the disposable soma assumes that the lifespan of creatures is determined by its own set of mechanisms that enable the body to find a balance between continuing its maintenance functions and deal with stress and reproduction at an optimum level at the same time.

As a consequence the theory argues that species that are less affected by outside causes of death invest more in physical maintenance functions, which ages their bodies slower. Species that are more affected by external causes of death invest less effort into bodily maintenance functions.

Kirkwood tested this theory in a comparative study of stress resistance in primary skin. The study confirmed that cells from long-lived species are indeed a lot more resistant to stress.
Another example of variations of lifespans within species is the rodent calorie restriction model In this model, food-restricted animals display an elevated level of stress response mechanisms, which suggests that this response is an outcome of natural selection as part of the evolution process.

Kirkwood developed a theoretical model which examined whether the optimisation of bodily maintenance functions in response to changes of food availability is a dynamic process. At the core of the model lies the assumption that restrictions to food intake, and the body’s adaption to it is an evolutionary adaptation. It raises questions about the hierarchy of body’s responses if exposed to a range of stress factors and whether or how these are genetically controlled.

In his model, Kirkwood could show that ecological factor’s aid in the adaptation process and suggests that they are important in considering the likely relevance of a similar response to food restrictions in other species. Other studies and theories support Kirkwood’s idea that body’s maintenance functions and stress responses are influencing a body’s lifespan.

Kirkwood’s Theory

Kirkwood developed his disposable soma theory in 1977 (Kirkwood, 1977, 1981; Kirkwood & Holliday, 1979; Kirkwood & Rose, 1991) and proved with it that as part of the evolution process when exposed to external stress factors bodies can only invest limited resources in maintaining and repairing their own cells and tissues. This is because these maintenance systems are energy intense and require a large portion of the body’s basal metabolism for maintenance and repairs.

In natural environments death is usually caused by external factors such as accidents, change of temperature and food depletion. In environment like this, the body unique requires sufficient maintenance to keep its cells in adequate condition while going through the survival period and only requires little reserves. Kirkwood provides an example of wild mice which infrequently survive beyond the first year and rarely reach the age of three, even if they live in protected environments. Kirkwood argues that there would be a little advantage for mice to having a high level of bodily maintenance systems that prolonged their lifespan. This would cost a high level of additional metabolic energy and reduce their capability to reproduce. As a conclusion Kirkwood argues that intrinsic ageing is caused by the body leaving an increasing proportion of unrepaired cellular damage, which over time causes frailty, diseases and death.

Kirkwood’s idea leads to a number of predictions that can be tested (Kirkwood & Franceschi, 1992). The first prediction is that ageing is not a genetically programmed mechanism that actively causes intrinsic death, but the opposite way. The lifespan of a body is determined by genes that program the bodily repair and maintenance functions, so-called `longevity assurance’ genes. The second prediction is that the lifespan of different species is determined by the degree of external forces particular about each species and each optimisation of physical maintenance, which is shaped by this environment.

A change in the environment or adaptation that changes the risk of external causes of death should also change the species’ body to adjust their internal maintenance level. This would explain why animals that have evolved flight like birds and bats. These animals have a higher live expectancy than those animals that is ground dwelling.

The third prediction is that there are a range of maintenance mechanisms, which means that ageing and longevity are controlled by more than just one genetic programming. The repair rate of damaged cells, or the delay in their repair are influenced by the levels at which individual genes are set.

The fourth prediction takes a closer look at the mechanisms of ageing and predicts that they are random, and that chance to genetic and environmental factors are significant in predicting a the body’s longevity (Finch & Kirkwood, 1999). The important role of chance in the ageing process is clear, Kirkwood argues, if the difference in lifespans of identical species living in the same environment, for example, mice or nematodes, is considered.

Cell stress resistance in comparison

Kirkwood tested his prediction that cells from species with a long lifespan are better equipped to repair and maintain their cells under stress in comparison to primary cultures of mammalian skin fibroblasts (Kapahi et al. 1999). In his study, Kirkwood derived cells using a standard protocol to minimise potential skewing variables. Fibroblasts from rat, hamster, marmoset, rabbit, sheep, pig and cow were grown from biopsies obtained from the inner side of the forelimb of young specimen. The species age was less than 20% of its maximum lifespan, and Kirkwood used 2-4donors per species.

Human fibroblasts were grown from foreskins provided from routine elective surgeries. Kirkwood established primary cell cultures and tested for them for stress resistance before the cells had undergone a maximum of 10 doublings in vitro. Replicate cultures were exposed to a dose of one of the following stressors; the period of stress exposure is indicated in brackets: hydrogen peroxide (2 hours), paraquat (24 hours), tert-butyl hydroperoxide (2 hours), sodium arsenite (6 hours), or sodium hydroxide (6 hours). Based on the stressor, a range of doses was used to evaluate the dose-response association by comparing percent cell survival to the dose of stressors utilized.

Kirkwood found that cell stress resistance, expressed in terms of the degree of the dose of the stressor, needed to eradicate 90% of the cell population, which were positively linked with species’ lifespans. Influencing factors that could potentially skew results were tried to eliminate as much as possible. For example, for 2 known variables that influenced the fibroblast model of cell ageing the donor’s age and cell doubling level was restricted. As part of the study it was also ensured that all samples were from parts of the body that weren’t regularly exposed to sunlight, for example, the foreskin of human and the inside forelimb of other species was used. An additional control was included to avoid potential heredity factors, which is a major issue in comparative studies like this.

The data were independently analysed by M. Pagel using a generalised least squares (GLS) model that takes account of phylogeny, or heredity factors (Pagel 1998). The GLS data analysis showed that the positive correlations that Kirkwood assumed were indeed statistically significant for all stressors except tert-butyl hydroperoxide. Here the correlation was positive but non-significant.

The results of Kirkwood’s study proofed that multiple stress response mechanisms are involved in determining a species-specific lifespan. Kirkwood suggested that further research into genes that mediate the cellular response to stress may show some of the mechanisms that determine species’ longevities.

Calorie restriction

The fact that lifespans of rodents living in laboratories is much longer even with 20-30% decreased food intake, is widely known (Weindruch & Walford, 1988; Sprott, 1997). Reducing food intake of animals creates small, lean, healthy and active animals, with only impaired fertility. With little exception, the animal’s body maintenance functions are changed (Masoro, 1993; Yu, 1994; Merry, 1995).

Understanding the cause for this phenomenon is crucial in understanding whether it has an evolutionary basis, what effects it has on the ageing process and whether it is also applied to already long-lived species like humans. It sounds like paradox that a body that gets less energy through food can change its physiological process that prolongs its life, which must have an impact on its metabolism. It suggests that in other functions, the body can save energy, and the most obvious function is the reproductive system. Reproduction is not only physiologically costly, but also associated behaviours are energy expensive. Rodents typically invest a large fraction of their energy budget in reproduction. Calorie restriction results in animals that are mostly infertile, although there is some variation depending on the species, the sex, the degree of restriction and the age at which restriction is first applied (Weindruch & Walford, 1988).

The evolutionary question of why a calorie restricted organism should delay its ageing process may lead to further knowledge on the physiological basis of this phenomenon.

Researchers Harrison and Archer (1988) suggested that the primary role of calorie restriction is to postpone reproductive senescence. They argue that if a famine lasted longer than a regular reproductive lifespan of the animal, any female that delays reproductive senescence and is able to breed after the famine has passed will experience a selective advantage. Harrison and Archer (1988) predicted that calorie restriction should have a greater effect on species with shorter reproductive lifespans. They suggested a comparison study between the house mouse and the longer-lived white-footed mouse and predicted that calorie restriction should have little effect on longer living species like humans.

Holliday (1989) proposed a more explicit hypothesis. It was based on Kirkwood’s disposable soma theory of aging. He argued that under conditions of plentiful food supply, a constant amount of energy is allocated to maintenance. With shrinking food supplies reproduction is reduced and eventually diminished. Holliday suggested that in theory, a small amount of energy could be used for reproduction even during a famine. However, it would be advantageous to guarantee survival of a species to temporarily increase their investment in somatic maintenance instead. The potential benefit is that the animal gains an increased chance of survival with a reduced intrinsic rate of senescence. Once the famine is over the animal still had the chance to reproduce and ensure survival of its species.

Kirkwood tested this idea with a dynamic programming model. The aim was to examine whether a decrease in food and the physiologic responses that occurred in the laboratory might, in fact, reflect an adaptive resource allocation strategy that has evolved through similar conditions that occur in the wild during famines (Shanley & Kirkwood, 1999). The model was developed for mice, for which extensive physiologic and life history data were available for both, living in the wild and in the laboratory (Berry & Bronson, 1992). The study was based on a resource allocation rule which determined the animal’s allocating of energy between maintenance functions and reproduction. The study distinguished between resources allocated to reproduction, which are used to produce progeny. Resources allocated to maintenance are used to conserve the state.

At any age, the change in the state is determined by the amount of energy invested in maintenance. With a great investment in maintenance, the state remains relatively unchanged, corresponding to a slow rate of ageing. Conversely, with a small investment in maintenance, the state change is large, corresponding to a rapid rate of ageing.

Apparently, mice under calorie restriction have a lower reproduction capability, but it remains contemporary as long as enough energy is present. Kirkwood suggests that there are various stress response systems, which reflect how the body adapts to changes in calorie intake.

Conclusion

Available studies focusing on evolution, stress on longevity support the concept that natural selection plays a fundamental role in how to optimise the levels of somatic, or bodily maintenance and stress response systems in relation the respective surroundings. Ostensibly, species having a longer-life are more able to support various stressors. However, there is an evolutionary relation between longevity, stress resistance and calorie restriction. In the near future, gerontologist and other researchers in aging might provide insight and clues on how these 3 components interact.

Source: Review: Evolution, Stress, and Longevity – Thomas B. L. Kirkwood, Pankaj Kapahi And Daryl P. Shanley – Biological Gerontology Group, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.

Anti Aging, Anti Aging Theories, Longevity

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Wisdom and wealth are highly sought-after commodities, but most people’s health lets them down before either one can be obtained. If we want to expand our lifespan and beef-up, our minds there is only one way and that is to alter ourselves physically. If we take a look at how we developed into our current state. We need to understand Darwin’s theory of evolution.

Next we need to envision future avenues of replacing parts of our bodies that are worn out to combat occurring health problems. The latest step is to find ways to change the capacity of our brains so that we can increase our wisdom, which will lead, eventually, to completely replace our brains altogether through nanotechnology. As soon as we have left our physiology limits behind, we will be in a position to choose our life’s lengths. Immortality becomes one option of many, yet unknown, potentials. In this utopian scenario becoming wealthy won’t be an issue anymore, but controlling it will be.

These changes are hard to picture, no doubt. There are many who say that these steps aren’t possible to turn into reality, particularly those concerned with artificial intelligence. However, science that can enable these changes is already happening, and it is a good point in time to think about how the future will look like.

Long and healthy lifespans

Health and longevity can’t be achieved through biology. The body of knowledge about health and how to best maintain it is quite extensive based on current research. The number of treatments of individual diseases and disability is huge and researchers are already thinking about how to extend the normal lifespans of humans, which still remains an unachieved goal. Roy Walford, professor of pathology at UCLA Medical School estimates that the average lifespan in ancient Rome was around 22 years, in the developed countries of 1900 around 50 years and today approximately 75 years. Continuing these estimates into the future still leaves 115 years of age as the paramount even with significant changes in how we care for our health.

The question is why our lifespans have to end there? The answer reveals itself when we take a look at the natural selection process, which advances those genes that have the most descendants, which grow even further over multiple generations. Genes of those who reproduce at an early stage in their life are favoured. Looking at evolution if proves that those who live long until after they have stopped caring for the young aren’t favoured by evolution. On the contrary, evolution often favours those off-springs that are not required to compete with their living parents because this kind of competition could potentially cause the accumulation of genes that cause death.

The longest-living warm-blooded animals still remain to be humans. It is interesting to question what selective forces have actually contributed to our current longevity, which is almost twice as long as other primates. The answer to this is wisdom. In comparison to other mammals, our children are the most ill-equipped creatures to survive on their own. Isn’t it possible that in addition to needing our parents, we might also need our grandparents to nurture us and hand down important knowledge about survival?

Even despite their advice there are many reasons for premature death that we can suffer. Some are caused by infections even though our immune systems have evolved into dealing with many diseases effectively. However, our immune system is not full-proved. There are sometimes parts of our immune system gets infected too. Such errors in the system lead to many different diseases like diabetes, multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis.

We also encounter injuries, which can’t be repaired by our own bodies such as accidents, dietary imbalances, chemical poisons, heat and radiation. These triggers alter our cell’s molecules and render them non-functioning. Sometimes these alterations can be reversed and damaged cells get replaced. Mostly, when this rate of damage repair is too slow errors occur. For example, if the proteins in the lenses of our eyes lose elasticity, we can’t focus our vision anymore and require bifocal glasses.

Deterioration of the body

The usual progression of all living organisms is that they wear-out. The more we add to the body of knowledge about our genetic makeup and our cellular biochemistry the more we hope to be able to cure many diseases that are still common with old age. Even if we could cure all the familiar diseases our bodies would, even so, be prone to deteriorate. Usual cell functions involve many different chemical processes, which aren’t protected to making accidental mistakes. Although our bodies are capable of executing a range of methods that can correct their own mistakes, random errors occur and are difficult to correct all of them.

The core of the problem is that our physical bodies aren’t designed to keep up this maintenance for a long period of time. Over time the relationship between genetic makeup and functioning of cells becomes indirect. In order to repair larger defects our bodies would require an extensive catalogue outlining the location of various types of cells, or otherwise require ongoing regenerative medical treatment.

If we take a look at computer programs, we can see that it is easy to install such redundant information. Having a back-up of their most important system programs is essential for many computers. This helps to verify integrity on a routinely basis. Living organisms haven’t evolved with these routine check-ups, probably because such algorithms wouldn’t develop during evolution processes. In other words, error correction would stop random mutation, which in return would slow down evolution itself. Creatures’ descendants would be rendered unable to adapt to any changes in their environment as a consequence.

Would it be possible to live for many centuries if we could change some of our own genes? In fact, we are now only by a few thousand of genes different from any of our evolutionary relatives such as gorillas and chimpanzees, and yet we have been able to expand our lifespan to double the lengths. Considering that only a few alterations in the genetic make-up lead to this increase then we could assume maybe only hundred or so genes are involved in this process.

Even if this was correct it wouldn’t guarantee that we can extend our lifespan through altering another hundred genes, perhaps even more. Instead creating altogether new genes and implementing them into bodies becomes a reality nowadays. At the same time, we are already investigating another approach to counter biological deterioration by replacing organs and tissues that are about to fail with artificial implants.

Some of these replacements have made it into the mainstream already, while others are yet to become widely available. If we look at organs, hearts are simple pumps, muscles and bones can be seen as motors and beams. The digestive system is really just a chemical reactor. Sooner or later we will eradicate any problems that occur with transplanting or replacing any of these physical parts. If we think about replacing a brain, the thing is different, will we still be the same person? With this change, the knowledge one possessed would be lost. Part of the identity diminished.

Instead of transplanting an entire brain, there might be the possibility to replace deteriorated parts of the brain with tissue-cultured stem cells. Although this invasion wouldn’t restore lost knowledge it might not be crucial either. If we consider that knowledge is placed in different fragments of the brain. Transplanted tissue might get retrained and reintegrated with the remaining brain. This might even occur spontaneously. This type of procedure has already been contemplated lately with the advancement in research in neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s.

Limits to knowledge and wisdom

Long before our biological bodies let us down it can be assumed that we reach the limit of our brain capacity. Humans may have already reached the peak of their mental development without a sign of being able to further their intellectual capacities. Could Albert Einstein be rated a better scientist than others like Newton or Archimedes? Has Euripides or Shakespeare been surpassed by any other playwright recently? In two thousand years, humanity has gained significant knowledge. However, wisdom from ancient times still holds true, which might prove that humanity hasn’t made much progress since. There are many things that we are still incapable of, for example, dealing with conflicts been individual and global interests or making important decisions without leaving them to pure chance. Why is our knowledge so limited? Is it the lack of time for learning or the diminished capacity to learn? Is it true that we indeed only use a very small part of our brains? Is better education the best way for improvement? It certainly could be, but only to a certain point.

Looking at even the best students in the world, we see that even they only learn twice as quickly as others. The reason why we take so much time to learn is because our brains are very slow at processing information. Its capacity is, like many other finite things, is limited as to what it can store. However, we are unsure of what these limits actually consist of, and it could be true that our brains could very well be able to learn for a whole lot longer.

Doubtless we need to expand their capacity, because the more we can find out about our own brains the more it will become clear how it can be improved. So far, we know that our brain has many specialized centres, but it is not known yet what each of them actually does. As soon as this becomes clear, we can develop avenues of stretching its limits. Researchers will also find new abilities beyond the biological blue-print. The further these inventions reach the more we will be capable of integrating them into our brains, maybe through a large number of microscopic electrodes that we can connect to the largest nerve-bundle in our brain, the corpus callosum. With more knowledge, we will be able to enhance every part of our brains with useful advances and ultimately replace every part of our physical makeup including our brains. This way, we would eradicate every part of our flawed biological existence that causes our short lifespans.

A New Brain

Our brain stores almost all the knowledge that we accumulate inside complex networks, which are made up of a large number of very small nerve cells and synapses. They are responsible of controlling signals jumping in-between nerve cells. In order to replace the brain we would need to know more about how these synapses function and relay information. We also need to gain more knowledge about structures’ responses to electric fields, hormones, neurotransmitters, nutrients and chemicals that surround them in the brain. Every brain is made up of trillions of synapses so the task to understand this phenomenon is crucial.

The good thing is that not every little detail needs to be known of because if that was true, our brains wouldn’t be able to work at all. We do know that brains have evolved with insensitivity to smaller subsystems even though it depends on them. Consequentially it should be sufficient to replicate only so many parts that each process is capable of replicating the usual function inside the complex system.

If we assume that we wanted to copy a machine like the brain the most complex organ and contained such a huge number of components, we probably wouldn’t be capable of it yet, even if we did have the needed knowledge, particularly if we had to copy each component separately. Instead, if we had a machine supporting our construction that was capable of building the required amount of parts the process would only take minutes. In the future new machines like this will make the process achievable. If we look at current manufacturing processes, we know that they are based on bulk work. Unlike nanotechnology that has its goal to build each atom and molecule precisely where it has to be. Through this method, completely identical parts could be created and overcome randomness that is an obstacle to our machines now.

Another example is when we attempt today to etch tiny circuits the sizes of wires are so different from each other that we are unable to foresee their electrical characteristics. Instead, if we were capable of locating each atom exactly, wires would become completely identical and lead to new materials that are currently out of our reach. Their properties could be more durable or modern advancement on a quantum level. Computers would become possible that are as small as our synapses with similar speed and efficiency.

Breaking limits of our memory

When considering to alter our brains we need to look at how knowledge of an average person is today. Conducting a range of studies, Thomas K. Landauer of Bell Communications Research asked people in experiments to read, take a look at pictures and listen to words, sentences, short passages of music, and nonsense syllables and later tested their ability to remember any of the stimulus. He found that people weren’t able to learn anything in any of the provided situations productively. Their intake rate was only two bits per second for a longer period of time. If this rate could be maintained for twelve hours every day over a century, the result would be three billion bits. This amount of data is less than what can be stored on an average CD and in another decade, the knowledge gained at that speed would fit on a single computer chip.

Although the content of the experiments isn’t reflecting how humans learn in everyday life, there is little proof that anyone can learn any quicker than those in a study environment. The truth is despite the myths about people’s “photographic memories,” there are very few who can recall the word by word content of a few hundred books or even a single entire encyclopedia. Notwithstanding, Shakespeare’s complete works only amount to 130 million bits. Landauer’s research result indicates that it takes at least four years to memorise the limits and there is no research that proves the volume of information required to paint or ski. However, there shouldn’t be any difference in limitations to learning these activities. Scientists estimate that the brain houses a hundred trillion synapses. This would leave room for additional reproducible memories. One day it may even be achievable to construct storage space as small as a pea through nanotechnology.

Intelligence in the future

As soon as we know what is required to extend our intelligence with the help of nanotechnologies we should be capable of replacing insufficiently working body parts and brains and use faster operating systems. Currently, our computer chips are already faster than our own brain cells and there is no reason to believe that we can build our future selves to think a lot faster than we can now. Once we have obtained this state we might perceive a minute like an entire human lifetime.

Are such beings really capable of existing? Critics argue that machines will never be able to think like those of humans because regardless of how they are built, they always miss one main part. This part is referred to in many ways such as sentience, consciousness, spirit or soul. Whole books have been written on the subject of machine’s lack of ability to perceive and think like we do. The main flaw is always the same: the assumption that humans have a magical spark which machines clearly have not.

If we look at what it takes to think effectively a range of precursors are necessary. They include the ability to describe, predict, explain, abstract and plan the next steps of your mind. The reason human beings are capable of this is not because we have a magical spark of life that provides us with qualities and skills, but because we have multiple processes at our disposal that prevent us from getting stuck. First, we know, how and what actually happens. This how we can fix things. A computer equipped with such ability would work as a magical machine. Computers nowadays are already able to fix themselves and find alternative solution. A machine capable of this would certainly appear to be conscious.

Ethics discussed

The thoughts expressed in this writing have an impact on our rights to reproduce, alter our genetic makeup and die if we choose to. So far, neither ethical systems nor humanistic or religious trains of thoughts have been capable of coming to terms with the challenges that humanity will face in the future. How many people should live on Earth? What sort of people should be allowed to live? How should available resources be shared? Our approach of reproducing has to be altered. Instead of conceiving individuals by chance in the future they may be ‘composed’ following thought-through wishes and ideas. Additionally, when we create new brains, they don’t need to follow our natural brains by starting out empty and getting filled over time.

The question is what would you fill them with? How many children should be produced and how will their characteristics be decided? Despite the unknown future, we are already bending the rules that have created us. Many will be frightened of change, but the potential it bears is probably desirable compared to our current state of limitations. When this article was written the concepts were tried on a range of different groups, and they could respond in an informal poll. The result was amazing with three quarters feeling our lifespan was already too long. Why would it be desirable to life for five centuries? Wouldn’t it be tiresome? What if all of ones friends already passed away? How would you spend your time? These were questions they asked. It appeared; they didn’t consider themselves worthy of a long life. Many people think it is okay to die.

On the other hand, scientific colleagues didn’t share this concern. There are many things we’d be interested in doing, so many problems to tackle, we can see our self using much of the time,” they said. They agreed that immortality was unattractive if it implied never-ending infirmity, debility and being dependent on others. However, this will not be the case as the future hold a state of impeccable health.

Others explained their concern was that senile people had to die so that younger successors could eradicate old ideas. Instead, if it holds true that we are already making out our intellectual abilities, their concerns aren’t adequate, and we still are far away from finding wisdom that is currently out of our reach.

Source: Adaptation of marvin L. Minsky: The Scientific Conquest of Death (IMMINST.Org)

Other Related articles:

1. Death A Current Unbeatable Foe But Science is Slowly Progressing
2. Nanomedicine – A Solution for a Limitless Healthy Lifespan Part 1
3. Nanomedicine – Dechronification: Treating the Disease of Natural Death Part 2

Anti Aging, Anti Aging Theories, Immortality, Nanotechnology

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